Of the six thousand languages spoken in the world today, an estimated thousand are found in Southeast Asia. Archeological evidence dates human habitation of Southeast Asia to around a million years ago, but migration into the region also has a long history. In early times tribal groups from southern China moved into the interior areas of the mainland via the long river systems. Linguistically, the mainland is divided into three important families, the Austro-Asiatic like Cambodian and Vietnamese , Tai like Thai and Lao , and the Tibeto-Burmese including highland languages as well as Burmese.
Languages belonging to these families can also be found in northeastern India and southwestern China. Around four thousand years ago people speaking languages belonging to the Austronesian family originating in southern China and Taiwan began to trickle into island Southeast Asia. In the Philippines and the Malay-Indonesian archipelago this migration displaced or absorbed the original inhabitants, who may have been related to groups in Australia and New Guinea.
Almost all the languages spoken in insular Southeast Asia today belong to the Austronesian family. A remarkable feature of Southeast Asia is the different ways people have adapted to local environments.
In premodern times many nomadic groups lived permanently in small boats and were known as orang laut, or sea people. The deep jungles were home to numerous small wandering groups, and interior tribes also included fierce headhunters. In some of the islands of eastern Indonesia, where there is a long dry season, the fruit of the lontar palm was a staple food; in other areas, it was sago. On the fertile plans of Java and mainland Southeast Asia sedentary communities grew irrigated rice; along the coasts, which were less suitable for agriculture because of mangrove swamps, fishing and trade were the principal occupations.
Due to a number of factors—low populations, the late arrival of the world religions, a lack of urbanization, descent through both male and female lines—women in Southeast Asia are generally seen as more equal to men that in neighboring areas like China and India. Cultural changes began to affect Southeast Asia around two thousand years ago with influences coming from two directions.
Chinese expansion south of the Yangtze River eventually led to the colonization of Vietnam. Chinese control was permanently ended in , but Confucian philosophy had a lasting influence when Vietnam became independent. Buddhism and Taoism also reached Vietnam via China. In the rest of mainland Southeast Asia, and in the western areas of the Malay-Indonesian archipelago, expanding trade across the Bay of Bengal meant Indian influences were more pronounced.
These influences were most obvious when large sedentary populations were engaged in growing irrigated rice, like northern Vietnam, Cambodia, Thailand, Burma, Java, and Bali. Rulers and courts in these areas who adopted Hinduism or forms of Buddhism promoted a culture which combined imported ideas with aspects of local society. Differences in the physical environment affected the political structures that developed in Southeast Asia. When people were nomadic or semi-nomadic, it was difficult to construct a permanent governing system with stable bureaucracies and a reliable tax base.
This type of state only developed in areas where there was a settled population, like the large rice-growing plains of the mainland and Java. However, even the most powerful of these states found it difficult to extend their authority into remote highlands and islands.
Islamic teachings began to spread in Southeast Asia from around the thirteenth century. Islam teaches the oneness of God known to Muslims as Allah , who has revealed his message through a succession of prophets and finally through Muhammad ca. These are: 1 the confession of faith. At the height of its power between the eighth and fifteenth centuries, a united Muslim Empire included all North Africa, Sicily, Egypt, Syria, Turkey, western Arabia, and southern Spain.
From the tenth century CE Islam was subsequently brought to India by a similar moment of conquest and conversion, and its dominant political position was confirmed when the Mughal dynasty was established in the sixteenth century. In northern Thailand, the dry season extends from November through May , with the latter half of that time period experiencing higher relative temperatures.
Expect temperatures to hover around 86 degrees Fahrenheit 30 degrees Celsius in Bangkok during this time. The rainy season up north starts in May and ends in November. In places like Chiang Mai and Pai , this means cloudy, hot, and sticky weather, but with less rainfall than southern destinations.
Southern Thailand is different however, with the east and west coasts experiencing a slightly offset rainy season. Generally speaking, the monsoonal rains run roughly from June through October, with September being the wettest month overall.
The nice thing about traveling to Laos is that the weather isn't affected by coastal proximity. And while both a dry and rainy season still exist, travel here year-round can be pleasant. Northern Laos experiences a tropical climate, while the southern part of the country is subequatorial, making the weather experience wildly different across its various regions.
Add to that the mountainous highlands, where additional cooling and a drop in humidity takes place no matter what the season. In the dry season, from November to April, the northeast monsoonal winds bring cooler temps and low humidity with an average temperature in Vientiane of 77 degrees Fahrenheit 25 degrees Celsius , perfect for visiting the Buddhist temples and shrines.
But during the rainy season, from January to May, expect heat and humidity to persevere with the same city experiencing 84 degrees Fahrenheit 29 degrees Celsius on average. Vietnam doesn't have significant shifts in weather or temperature throughout the year, but because of its elongated shape, the weather differs significantly between the north and the south.
Temperatures in Hanoi can be quite cool, actually, with lows reaching 59 degrees Fahrenheit 15 degrees Celsius during the months of December, January, and February. Northern regions have hot and humid summers and cool and wet winters. The southern part of Vietnam lies within the tropical monsoon zone with November through April being relatively dry and May through October being the rainy season when average temperatures in Ho Chi Minh City are 86 degrees Fahrenheit 30 degrees Celsius.
Hit the beach in the south during the dry season to enjoy tolerable weather and a cool dip, or surf, in the ocean. The tropical islands of Indonesia make an excellent choice for destination travel. When Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, and other northern locales are inundated with rain, these islands are experiencing their dry season with temperatures in Bali averaging around 82 degrees Fahrenheit 28 degrees Celsius.
The Indonesian archipelago is broad and geological features can influence the weather, though you'll always find a relatively dry nook or cranny to enjoy, even during the rainy season. Days are coolest during the dry season, which opposes Thailand's dry season and lasts from June to September, when temperatures hover around 79 degrees Fahrenheit 26 degrees Celsius. It's a great time to lounge on a remote beach or go snorkeling or diving to see world-class coral reefs.
July is the busiest month to visit, but come November and April, the rains come in and the place clears out. The Philippines. According to the United Nations Environment Program, these forest fires are among the most damaging in recorded history.
The loss of natural forest and tropical forest dieback will vastly increase global carbon emissions. Typically, clearance of 1 hectare of tropical forest will release about m 3 of carbon into the atmosphere Jones et al, Forests are commonly converted to cropland, paddy and pasture to respond to growing population and urbanization needs or lost through illegal logging.
Indonesia, for example, has lost 60 per cent of its total forest 64 million hectares over a period of 50 years, from to , and the loss is continuing at the rate of 2 million hectares per year. Biodiversity is under threat. Hundreds of mammal and bird species have been declared threatened UNEP, Widespread bleaching of coral reefs has been reported in Indonesia, Thailand, Cambodia and Malaysia Preston et al, Forest under legal protection is not safe; some 56 per cent of protected lowland forest in Kalimantan, Indonesia, has been wiped out in recent years, from to With few exceptions, most municipalities cannot cope with the challenges of rapid urbanization.
All the countries in Southeast Asia, except Singapore, are developing countries with little capacity to manage urbanization and climate impacts. Many are struggling to cope with the current climate-related hazards to which they are exposed, including cyclone, rainfall extremes, floods and droughts with severe damage and loss of life Table 1.
Take the Nargis cyclone 2 May In Indonesia, some 75 to 80 percent of all natural disasters during the period of were linked to climatic change The Brunei Times , In addition, scientists are predicting that climate change may trigger more frequent and violent seismic activities Reuters, 17 Sep The effect of a rise in global sea level on the region may be as much as cm by and cm by Several of the Southeast Asian countries are island-states or in low-lying river deltas.
The Mekong river delta of Vietnam and many small islands in Southeast Asia are most at risk. According to the Asia Times , 26 May , Southeast Asia is possibly one of the most vulnerable areas in the global climate-change scenarios.
Extreme climate events are expected to occur more frequently. They are particularly vulnerable to some of the worst manifestations of climate change expected in the coming decades.
About 69 — 91 per cent of land area in Mekong Delta, Vietnam affected by sea-level rise during flood season Wassmann et al, Sea level rise cm : 2.
About 34, km2 of land area lost in Indonesia affecting 3. About 86 — per cent of land area in Mekong Delta, Vietnam affected by sea- level rise during flood season Wassmann et al, About 40, km2 of land area lost in Vietnam affecting Coastal southeastern Asia becomes suitable for malaria transmission Rogers and Randolph, Population at risk for malaria in Southeast Asia declines by 1 million van Lieshout et al, Number of people experiencing increase in water stress in Southeast Asia increases by 0 — 10 million Arnell, Number of people experiencing increase in water stress in Greater Mekong increases by 0 — million Arnell, Vegetation biomass in southern Southeast Asia Hadley Centre, About 1.
Grants technical assistance and loans for example, GEF funds are the dominant type of project funding. Many cities in Southeast Asia, including medium-sized cities such as Penang in Malaysia now have a sustainable development initiative. It is in developing sustainable cities. The Declaration recognizes the need to encourage the development of an ASEAN Climate Change Initiative and support the development of environmentally sustainable cities. To work closely with the international community to better understand and adapt to the adverse impacts of climate change, including, in particular, the related issues of greenhouse gas emissions and carbon sinks;.
To agree that the pursuit of climate change and energy security policies should avoid introducing barriers to trade and investment;. To intensify cooperation on the joint research, development and deployment of low emission technologies for the cleaner use of fossil fuels, recognizing that fossil fuels will continue to play a major role in our energy mix;. To take concrete measures to promote the use of renewable and alternative energy sources such as solar, hydro, wind, tide, biomass, bio-fuels and geothermal energy, as well as, for interested parties, civilian nuclear power, while ensuring safety and safeguards that are of current international standards, and environmental sustainability throughout the full life cycle of production and use;.
To improve energy efficiency in key sectors of energy use through capacity building and information sharing of best practices in managing energy use and the adoption of appropriate technologies and practices;. To undertake effective measures towards open and competitive regional and international markets geared towards providing affordable energy at all economic levels to facilitate the adoption of energy-efficient and low-emission technologies.
There are major differences within and across countries. The countries with relatively low adaptive capacity include the poorer countries of Cambodia and Lao PDR while Thailand, Malaysia and Vietnam are countries with relatively high adaptive capacity Yusuf and Francisco, Capacity development is absolutely essential in bringing change to Southeast Asian cities. Improving the effectiveness and cooperation between organizations in setting priorities and developing capacity that is less donor-driven and more demand responsive is needed.
The knowledge gap is real. Education on planning for climate change is urgently required. Very few are undertaking research on sustainable urban development. Much of the existing climate research is oriented around technologies, for example, air quality, water and energy, such as fuel cells, bio-energy and bio-fuels. A focus on technology though common is too narrow for Southeast Asia. There are signs of change. In the face of rapid urbanization and global warming, the case for sustainable city research is strong and fast emerging as an important agenda.
More funding is being put into research on the environment, climate change and city including at the national level. Knowledge has become urgent as more and more Southeast Asian cities seek the development of a sustainable city for future urban living. For example, Siemens Singapore in April has set up a Siemens city of the future exhibition and solutions center to profile innovative solutions and technologies for city management of future smart, safe and mobile cities.
New holistic and interdisciplinary research results on Southeast Asian sustainable urban development can be expected in the years ahead as actors get into doing the interdisciplinarity and disseminate their findings.
Singapore has started to promote climate change-related research and development after signing the Kyoto Accord in late It is master planning and developing an eco-city in China in partnership with the Chinese government. E2PO has developed a national plan to promote energy efficiency, comprising actions in several areas:. Promoting the adoption of energy efficient technology and measures by addressing the market barriers to energy efficiency;. Raising awareness to reach out to the public and businesses so as to stimulate energy efficient behavior and practices;.
Building capability to drive and sustain energy efficiency efforts and to develop the local knowledge base and expertise in energy management;. Several other countries have also started to converge on renewable energy. Malaysia, the Philippines and Thailand have all established renewable energy strategies and targets.
Near the equator are tropical evergreen forests , while deciduous forests are more common in the wet and dry climate zone. Teak, a valuable tree that Asians harvest commercially, comes from these deciduous forests. Southeast Asia also has many types of plants. In general, Oceania does not have diverse vegetation. The low islands have poor soil and small amounts of rain, so plants don't grow well. Some high islands have rich, volcanic soil and plentiful rain. These islands have abundant flowers and trees, such as the coconut palm.
Australia is the only inhabited continent that lies completely in the Southern Hemisphere. New Zealand is even farther south. Australia and New Zealand have generally moderate climates.
As Section 1 explained, a mountain chain runs parallel to the east coast of Australia. The strip between the mountains and ocean is divided mostly into two climate zones. The northern part of this strip has a humid subtropical climate, with hot summers, mild winters, and heavy rainfall. It is one of Australia's wettest regions, receiving an average of inches of rain a year.
This climate also exists in northern Vietnam, Laos, Thailand, and Myanmar. New Zealand and the southern part of Australia's east coast share a marine west coast climate. The seasons have mild temperatures because ocean breezes warm the land in the winter and cool it in the summer. New Zealand's forests consist primarily of evergreens and tree ferns, which thrive in such a climate.
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